The problem now appears to be one of re starting bank lending.

Shadow banking in China is dominated by lending to higher risk borrowers, such as local governments, property developers, and SMEs.

The four largest banks in China account for 60 of the country s total bank lending.

Indeed, it is increasingly common for banks off balance sheet lending to exceed newly issued balance sheet credit.

In many countries, the fall in bank lending was partly offset by an increase in lending to governments, which thought that the banks should recycle society s savings directly into public sector spending.

Second, in an effort to curtail excess bank lending, reserve ratios were increased nine times in the past 11 months.

Bank regulators should just say no to such lending by institutions that are already under their purview.

Bank lending to sovereign borrowers has been a double disaster, fostering over indebtedness, especially in countries with irresponsible or corrupt governments.

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In the US, there was zero growth in bank lending between 1933, the trough of the Depression, and 1937, the subsequent business cycle peak.

During the crisis, the level of banking activity fell particularly strongly in capital intensive areas such as traditional lending to the private sector.

China s leaders hope to control potential risks stemming from local government investment vehicles (LGIVs) by limiting bank lending.

So long as European banks remain undercapitalized and overleveraged, a sustainable recovery supported by robust bank lending is unlikely.

During the crisis, the level of banking activity fell particularly strongly in capital intensive areas such as traditional lending to the private sector. The effect was especially pronounced in lending to non financial companies, whereas lending to households an area with traditionally lower internationalization remained more robust.

Bankers were once supposed to know every borrower, and to make case by case lending decisions.

In 2011 2012, such lending grew by 1.1 trillion, reaching 3.6 trillion (23 of total bank financing), while balance sheet lending increased by only 732 billion.

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LONDON It is generally agreed that the crisis of 2008 2009 was caused by excessive bank lending, and that the failure to recover adequately from it stems from banks refusal to lend, owing to their broken balance sheets.

In contrast to lending activities, banks commitment to foreign markets has remained virtually unaffected with respect to purely intermediary activities such as investment banking and asset management.

This situation, combined with marginal bank lending and low levels of official development assistance, undermined the efforts to meet the Millennium Development Goals.

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In China, by contrast, bank lending needs to be reigned in, but regulatory efforts have been hindered by off balance sheet financing and the development of an informal quasi banking sector.

(d) Consumer Lending (CLP)

Solidarity group lending product

With such a swap, confidence could be restored to the banking system, and lending could be reignited with little or no cost to the taxpayer.

In just 10 years, the share of state directed bank lending in China has fallen from 92 of new credit creation to less than half.

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They range from subdued bank lending to unusually high risk aversion, and from discredited credit vehicles to the withdrawal of some institutions from credit intermediation altogether.

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(a) Provision of credit loans through group guaranteed and individual lending schemes

(b) Solidarity Group Lending (SGL)

Traditional lending and deposit taking still offers much growth potential and may become more attractive relative to investment banking or asset management as a result of new regulation.

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