Debt sustainability is also affected by vulnerability to external shocks.

External shocks brought about by climate change will directly affect advanced economies.

The most immediate challenge is to safeguard the financial system s stability against external shocks.

Abroad, he has moved to mitigate the blowback to Russia from a series of external political and economic shocks.

Successful coordination in fiscal and monetary affairs would enable the region to manage external shocks successfully.

Since then, many of China s inherent strengths have been sapped by all too frequent external shocks.

In these circumstances, immunity from external shocks or decoupling, as it is often called seems fanciful.

Now, in a low inflation environment, flexibility is properly regarded as an important tool to avoid misalignments and to shield economies from external shocks.

It funded the investment imperatives of economic development and boosted the cushion of foreign exchange reserves that has shielded China from external shocks.

Moreover, external shocks, policy mistakes, and political instability could disrupt even the best laid plans.

They are better at adjusting to external economic shocks (such as terms of trade declines or sudden stops in capital inflows).

Two external shocks first from the US, and now from Europe have transformed the Four Uns into an action plan.

When one considers the evidence about external economic shocks over the past year or two, what emerges are stories whose precise significance is unknowable.

The combination of external shocks and internal pressure from rising wages can serve as a powerful incentive for governments and businesses to pursue structural reforms.

Latin America has achieved substantial progress in its macroeconomic policy framework, giving its authorities increased room for maneuver in softening the impact of external shocks.

This, together with external shocks and severe recessions, made fixed exchange rate regimes untenable, first in Mexico, later in Brazil, and then, spectacularly, in Argentina.

But nowhere are bubbles modeled the economy is assumed to do nothing more than respond in a completely rational way to these external shocks.

The reasons for the increase in post HIPC initiative debt burdens in the majority of countries are well known and include both external shocks and poor macroeconomic management.

While economic contractions or expansions may be triggered by external shocks, the magnitude and duration of either is determined by the soundness of economic policy and the efficacy of institutions.

Traumatised by it

NEW YORK In recent years, emerging market countries, including those in Asia, have made impressive strides in strengthening their fundamentals, accelerating their economic growth and cushioning themselves against external shocks.

Another, more plausible theory is that over the past fifteen years there have been various external challenges or shocks that have hit the country simultaneously.

That might also help mitigate the impact of larger shocks and increase the net return potential during severe shocks (though it might also lower the return potential for more mild shocks).

In the aftermath of the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990 s, China amassed some 3.2 trillion in foreign exchange reserves in order to insulate its system from external shocks.

Growth must become more stable, with a consistently counter cyclical macroeconomic policy stance, prudent capital account management, and greater resilience to external shocks.

Perhaps they are right. But any financial system must be able to withstand shocks, including big ones.

Two kinds of institutions in particular need shoring up conflict management institutions to enhance economies resilience to external shocks, and institutions that promote productive diversification.

And we stand ready to provide additional support including under a new financing mechanism for countries hit by exogenous shocks to help those whom the global financial crisis has affected most severely.

Growth collapsed in Africa in the late 1970 s because of the weakness of the former, and fizzled in Latin America after the first half of the 1990 s because of the weakness of the latter.

These countries all had strong external balance sheets and ample room for fiscal maneuver before the crisis, which allowed them to apply countercyclical policies to combat external shocks.

Growth could easily slow following the next energy price slump or other external shock, such as proposals in Russia to limit employment and remittance opportunities for Central Asian workers there.

The most immediate challenge is to safeguard the financial system s stability against external shocks. Policy reform should aim to promote market transparency, improve risk management, and strengthen effective supervision and regulations.

When one considers the evidence about external economic shocks over the past year or two, what emerges are stories whose precise significance is unknowable. We only know that most of us have heard them many times.

But such external shocks may also have indirect effects by aggravating the disparities between developed and developing countries and creating additional incentives for mass migration to rich, less affected, and more adaptable regions.

Third, financial shocks will be worse than expected.

Hend, from Libya, takes several jabs at the poll.

The bulk of China s 2.3 trillion in foreign reserves are held not for the purpose of protection against negative external shocks, but as savings in the form of US Treasury notes.

These, together with the external shocks triggered by the volatility of speculative capital flows, drastic terms of trade adjustments and even inflows of remittances, make the potential benefits of structural adjustment and stabilization policies difficult to attain.

Second, exchange rates need to reflect economic fundamentals. But while theory suggests that flexible exchange rates should blunt foreign monetary or financial shocks, in practice, such a currency regime rarely works on its own.

It therefore becomes a priority to transport patients suffering from severe trauma as fast as possible to specialists, most often found at a hospital trauma center, for definitive treatment.

The project will assist national policymakers and policy shapers to develop the knowledge and skills to integrate macroeconomic and social goals in policy formulation and better utilize available national policy space to pursue development goals in the face of external shocks.

But it also includes physical resilience and the ability to withstand shocks.

Some have collective shocks to the marginal utility of leisure.

It can sometimes, but not always, be reversed by defibrillation.

This elevated temperature heat shocks non fecal bacteria and suppresses their growth.