Sustained economic growth requires, everywhere, the accumulation of physical and human capital, as well as the acquisition of technological capabilities.

By 2012, human capital s contribution to China s GDP growth fell almost to zero, with fixed capital accumulation accounting for roughly 60 of total growth.

With current and capital account surpluses, the renminbi s exchange rate is still under upward pressure.

As the accumulation and deepening of capital accelerate growth, they perpetuate the low efficiency investment pattern and stimulate overproduction.

In many developing countries, IPAs do not pay adequate attention to the potential for attracting FDI that could contribute to knowledge accumulation but focus rather on capital accumulation in tangible assets.

Indeed, while China s overall capital stock is by no means small, capital structure and maturity mismatches have led to the accumulation of massive volumes of non performing assets, undermining China s economic stability and financial efficiency.

The latter regions have more than substituted for the decline in natural capital by accumulating other capital assets.

But in any discussion of the forces governing the process of capital accumulation, the manner in which the richest stratum of society acquires and uses its income appears to be of particular significance.

Initial capital

As above, firm value is enhanced when, and if, the return on capital exceeds the cost of capital.

The Art of Capital Flight

Damming Capital

The Capital Flow Conundrum

Capital flows and remittances

E. Financial capital and resilience

The portion of capital inflows that is not re exported represents net capital inflows.

Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources through the buildup of heavy industry, the collectivization of agriculture, and the restricted manufacture of consumer goods.

That said, in the interplay of linkages making up a virtuous growth regime, capital accumulation seems to provide one important link from launching an industrial take off to sustaining catch up growth.

The Siren Song of Capital Controls

Investment and private flows

(o) Working Capital Fund

Brazil has been aggressive in terms of capital restrictions, twice increasing its tax on financial inflows.

To stop this accumulation of foreign exchange reserves, and thus minimize China s welfare and capital losses, the simplest solution would be for the PBOC to call a halt to intervention.

व श व क प ज क र ख फ र ट यर क ओर

Jacqueline Novogratz on patient capitalism

The reason lies in capital movements.

Finally, there is the path of public capital.

Surviving the Great Capital Flood

Raising capital is expensive.

The Temptation of China s Capital Account

List of tables

Before World War II, venture capital investments (originally known as development capital ) were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families.

This is why equity capital held by financial institutions typically is more than twice as expensive as debt capital and why these institutions try to minimize its use.

This approach, which secures growth and cuts unemployment without raising the deficit, is needed to energize the private sector and mobilize some of the capital that has accumulated on corporate balance sheets in recent years.

Traditional growth theories focus on systematic forces for example, capital accumulation, employment, and technical change that, by definition, operate all the time, although with varying degrees of intensity.

Microfinance institutions can also play a role by empowering individual entrepreneurs through providing the means to accumulate small scale capital for starting up small and medium sized enterprises.

The result is the accumulation of innovative capital and productive labour in the most developed countries, with a corresponding impoverishment of countries most in need of those resources, generating yet greater divergence and more inequalities.

Moreover, Li has called upon the banking sector to reinvigorate idle capital and allocate incremental capital more effectively.

Europe s Chimerical Capital Markets Union

Bank Regulation s Capital Mistake

Overexpenditure of small capitalization fees

Encouraging private capital flows and remittances

Advances from the Working Capital Fund

Political capital means the capital that will improve or enhance the NGOs status, possession or access in the existing political system.

Private capital, which accounts for more than 90 of capital flows to developing economies, will remain the dominant source of long term financing.